Course Content
INTRODUCTION TO FINANCIAL STATEMENT ANALYSIS
This topic covers the LOS (Learning Outcome Statements) 19 as covered by the CFA institute. According to this statement, after going through this reading, a student shall be able to: a. Describe the role of financial reporting and financial statement analysis. b. Describe the role of key financial statements, i.e. i. Statement of financial position, ii. Statement of comprehensive income, iii. Statement of changes in equity, and iv. Statement of cash flows. c. Describe the importance of financial statement notes and supplementary information. This includes: i. Disclosures of accounting policies, ii. Methods, and iii. Estimates used in financial reporting. d. Describe the: i. Objectives of audit of financial statements, ii. the types of audit reports, and iii. the importance of effective internal controls. e. Identify and describe information sources that analysts use in financial statement analysis besides annual financial statements and supplementary information; f. Describe the steps in the financial statement analysis framework.
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Introduction
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Role of Financial Statements and Financial Statement Analysis
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Major Financial Statements
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Other Documents
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Other Sources of Information
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Auditor’s Report
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Internal Control
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Financial Statement Analysis Framework
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FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS
This part of the study session 6 is covered under the LOS (Learning Outcome Statement) 20, as covered by the CFA institute. After going through this chapter, a student shall be able to: a. describe the objective of financial statements and the importance of financial reporting standards in security analysis and valuation; b. describe roles and desirable attributes of financial reporting standard-setting bodies and regulatory authorities in establishing and enforcing reporting standards, and describe the role of the International Organization of Securities Commissions; c. describe the International Accounting Standards Board’s conceptual framework, including the objective and qualitative characteristics of financial statements, required reporting elements, and constraints and assumptions in preparing financial statements; d. describe general requirements for financial statements under International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS); e. describe implications for the financial analysis of differing financial reporting systems and the importance of monitoring developments in financial reporting standards; analyze company disclosures of significant accounting policies. There are revisions and amendments that keep happening to the existing financial reporting standards o n a regular basis. It is thus advisable to the students to keep updating themselves regarding such changes to maintain a decent understanding regarding the financial reporting framework towards a better analysis.
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Introduction
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The Objectives of Financial Reporting
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Standard Setting Bodies and Regulatory Authorities
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Convergence of Global Financial Reporting Standards
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International Financial Reporting Standards Framework
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Effective Financial Reporting
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Comparison of IFRS with Alternative Reporting Systems
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UNDERSTANDING INCOME STATEMENTS
This part of the study session 7 is covered under the LOS (Learning Outcome Statement) 21, as covered by the CFA institute. After going through this chapter, a student shall be able to: a. describe the components of the income statement and alternative presentation formats of that statement; b. describe general principles of revenue recognition and accrual accounting, specific revenue recognition applications (including accounting for long-term contracts, installment sales, barter transactions, gross and net reporting of revenue), and implications of revenue recognition principles for financial analysis; c. calculate revenue given information that might influence the choice of revenue recognition method; d. describe general principles of expense recognition, specific expense recognition applications, and implications of expense recognition choices for financial analysis; e. describe the financial reporting treatment and analysis of non-recurring items (including discontinued operations, extraordinary items, unusual or infrequent items) and changes in accounting standards; f. distinguish between the operating and non-operating components of the income statement; g. describe how earnings per share are calculated and calculate and interpret a company’s earnings per share (both basic and diluted earnings per share) for both simple and complex capital structures; h. distinguish between dilutive and anti-dilutive securities, and describe the implications of each for the earnings per share calculation; i. convert income statements to common-size income statements; j. evaluate a company’s financial performance using common-size income statements and financial ratios based on the income statement; k. describe, calculate, and interpret comprehensive income; l. describe other comprehensive income, and identify major types of items included in it.
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Introduction
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Income Statement Components
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Presentation Format of Income Statements
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Revenue Recognition
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Expense Recognition
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Non- Recurring / Operating Items
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Earnings Per Share
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Income Statement Analysis
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UNDERSTANDING BALANCE SHEETS
This part of the study session 7 is covered under the Reading 22, as covered by the CFA institute. After going through this chapter, a student shall be able to: a. describe the elements of the balance sheet: assets, liabilities, and equity; b. describe uses and limitations of the balance sheet in financial analysis; c. describe alternative formats of balance sheet presentation; d. distinguish between current and non-current assets, and current and non-current liabilities; e. describe different types of assets and liabilities and the measurement bases of each; f. describe the components of shareholders’ equity; g. convert balance sheets to common-size balance sheets and interpret common-size balance sheets; h. calculate and interpret liquidity and solvency ratios.
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Introduction
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Elements of Balance Sheet
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Uses and Limitations of Balance Sheet
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Alternative Formats of Balance Sheet
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Current Assets/Liabilities vs. Non-Current Assets/Liabilities
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Types of Assets and Liabilities
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Vertical Common Sized Balance Sheet
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Calculation and Interpretation of Solvency and Liquidity Ratios
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UNDERSTANDING CASH FLOW STATEMENTS
This part of the study session 7 is covered under the Reading 23, as covered by the CFA institute. After going through this chapter, a student shall be able to: a. compare cash flows from operating, investing, and financing activities and classify cash flow items as relating to one of those three categories given a description of the items; b. describe how non-cash investing and financing activities are reported; c. contrast cash flow statements prepared under International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and US generally accepted accounting principles (US GAAP); d. distinguish between the direct and indirect methods of presenting cash from operating activities and describe arguments in favor of each method; e. describe how the cash flow statement is linked to the income statement and the balance sheet; f. describe the steps in the preparation of direct and indirect cash flow statements, including how cash flows can be computed using income statement and balance sheet data; g. convert cash flows from the indirect to direct method; h. analyze and interpret both reported and common-size cash flow statements; i. calculate and interpret free cash flow to the firm, free cash flow to equity, and performance and coverage cash flow ratios.
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Introduction
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Components of Cash Flow Statements
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Reporting of Non-Cash Investing and Financing Activities
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Difference between the Cash Flow Statement Prepared Under IFRS and US GAAP
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Difference between Direct and Indirect Method of Preparing Cash Flow Statement
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Other Relationships in Cash Flow Statement
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Steps in Preparation of Cash Flow Statements
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Conversion of Cash Flow from Indirect to Direct Method
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Analysis and Interpretation of Cash Flow Statement
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Calculation and Interpretation of Cash flow Ratios
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FINANCIAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
This part of the study session 7 is covered under the Reading 24, as covered by the CFA institute. After going through this chapter, a student shall be able to: a. describe tools and techniques used in financial analysis, including their uses and limitations; b. classify, calculate, and interpret activity, liquidity, solvency, profitability, and valuation ratios; c. describe relationships among ratios and evaluate a company using ratio analysis; d. demonstrate the application of DuPont analysis of return on equity, and calculate and interpret effects of changes in its components; e. calculate and interpret ratios used in equity analysis and credit analysis; f. explain the requirements for segment reporting, and calculate and interpret segment ratios; g. describe how ratio analysis and other techniques can be used to model and forecast earnings.
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Introduction
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Tools and Techniques Used in Financial Analysis
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Classifications, Calculation, and Interpretation of Various Ratios
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Du-Pont Analysis
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Equity and Credit Analysis
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Segment Reporting
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Use of Ratio Analysis to Model and Forecast Earnings
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INVENTORIES
This part of the study session 8 is covered under Reading 25, as covered by the CFA Institute. The candidate should be able to: a distinguish between costs included in inventories and costs recognised as expenses in the period in which they are incurred; b describe different inventory valuation methods (cost formulas); c calculate and compare cost of sales, gross profit, and ending inventory using different inventory valuation methods and using perpetual and periodic inventory systems; d calculate and explain how inflation and deflation of inventory costs affect the financial statements and ratios of companies that use different inventory valuation methods; e explain LIFO reserve and LIFO liquidation and their effects on financial statements and ratios; f convert a company’s reported financial statements from LIFO to FIFO for purposes of comparison; g describe the measurement of inventory at the lower of cost and net realisable value; h describe implications of valuing inventory at net realisable value for financial statements and ratios; i describe the financial statement presentation of and disclosures relating to inventories; j explain issues that analysts should consider when examining a company’s inventory disclosures and other sources of information; k calculate and compare ratios of companies, including companies that use different inventory methods; l analyze and compare the financial statements of companies, including companies that use different inventory methods.
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Introduction
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Product Cost and Period Cost
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Inventory Valuation Method
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Calculation of COGS and Value of Ending Inventory
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Concept of LIFO Reserve and Conversion of LIFO to FIFO / AVCO Method of Valuation
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Measurement of Inventory
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Presentation and Disclosures of Inventory and Related Items
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Issues Involved in Evaluating Inventory
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Impact of Choice of Valuation Methods on the Ratios
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Inventory Analysis
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LONG-LIVED ASSETS
This part the study session 8 is covered under Reading 26, as covered by the CFA Institute. After reading this chapter a candidate should be able to: a. distinguish between costs that are capitalised and costs that are expensed in the period in which they are incurred; b. compare the financial reporting of the following types of intangible assets: purchased, internally developed, acquired in a business combination; c. explain and evaluate how capitalising versus expensing costs in the period in which they are incurred affects financial statements and ratios; d. describe the different depreciation methods for property, plant, and equipment and calculate depreciation expense; e. describe how the choice of depreciation method and assumptions concerning useful life and residual value affect depreciation expense, financial statements, and ratios; f. describe the different amortisation methods for intangible assets with finite lives and calculate amortisation expense; g. describe how the choice of amortisation method and assumptions concerning useful life and residual value affect amortisation expense, financial statements, and ratios; h. describe the revaluation model; i. explain the impairment of property, plant, and equipment and intangible assets; j. explain the derecognition of property, plant, and equipment and intangible assets; k. explain and evaluate how impairment, revaluation, and derecognition of property, plant, and equipment and intangible assets affect financial statements and ratios; l. describe the financial statement presentation of and disclosures relating to property, plant, and equipment and intangible assets; m. analyze and interpret financial statement disclosures regarding property, plant, and equipment and intangible assets; n. compare the financial reporting of investment property with that of property, plant, and equipment.
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Introduction
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Capitalization of Cost Vs. Expensing
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Intangible Assets
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Impact of Capitalizing vs. Expensing the Assets on Financial Statements and Ratios
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Calculation of Depreciation Expense
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Impact of Choices for Depreciation on Financial Statements and Ratios
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Amortization
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Impact of Choices for Amortization on Financial Statements and Ratios
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Revaluation Model
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Impairment of Assets
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De-recognition of Assets
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Effects of Revaluation, Impairment, and De-Recognition
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Disclosures
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Evaluation of Important Ratios
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Investment Property
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Leasing
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INCOME TAXES
This part of the study session 8 is covered under Reading 28, as covered by the CFA Institute. After reading this chapter a candidate should be able to: a. describe the differences between accounting profit and taxable income, and define key terms, including deferred tax assets, deferred tax liabilities, valuation allowance, taxes payable, and income tax expense; b. explain how deferred tax liabilities and assets are created and the factors that determine how a company’s deferred tax liabilities and assets should be treated for the purposes of financial analysis; c. calculate the tax base of a company’s assets and liabilities; d. calculate income tax expense, income taxes payable, deferred tax assets, and deferred tax liabilities, and calculate and interpret the adjustment to the financial statements related to a change in the income tax rate; e. evaluate the impact of tax rate changes on a company’s financial statements and ratios; f. distinguish between temporary and permanent differences in pre-tax accounting income and taxable income; g. describe the valuation allowance for deferred tax assets—when it is required and what impact it has on financial statements; h. compare a company’s deferred tax items; i. analyze disclosures relating to deferred tax items and the effective tax rate reconciliation, and explain how information included in these disclosures affects a company’s financial statements and financial ratios; j. identify the key provisions of and differences between income tax accounting under International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and the US generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).
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Introduction
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Definition of Key Terms
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Creation and Treatment of Deferred Tax Assets / Liabilities
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Tax Base
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Calculation of Tax Expense, Income Tax Payable, Deferred Tax Asset / Liability
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Changes in Tax
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Differences in Temporary and Permanent Differences
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Valuation Allowance
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Current vs. Deferred Tax
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Disclosure Requirements for Deferred Tax Assets / Liabilities
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Key Differences in the Tax Accounting Under IFRS and GAAP
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NON-CURRENT (LONG-TERM) LIABILITIES
This part of the study session 8 is covered under Reading 28, as covered by the CFA Institute. After reading this chapter a candidate should be able to: a. determine the initial recognition, initial measurement, and subsequent measurement of bonds; b. describe the effective interest method and calculate interest expense, amortization of bond discounts/premiums, and interest payments; c. explain the derecognition of debt; d. describe the role of debt covenants in protecting creditors; e. describe the financial statement presentation of and disclosures relating to debt; f. explain motivations for leasing assets instead of purchasing them; g. explain the financial reporting of leases from a lessee’s perspective; h. explain the financial reporting of leases from a lessor’s perspective; i. compare the presentation and disclosure of defined contribution and defined benefit pension plans; j. calculate and interpret leverage and coverage ratios.
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Introduction
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Bonds
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Methods of Accounting for Bonds
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Derecognition of Bonds
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Debt Covenants
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Presentation and Disclosure of Bonds
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Leases
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Benefits of Leasing
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Financial Reporting From Lessee’s and Lessor’s Perspective
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Pension Plans
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Leverage and Coverage Ratios
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FINANCIAL REPORTING QUALITY
This part of the study session 9 is covered under Reading 29, as covered by the CFA Institute. After reading this chapter a candidate should be able to: a. distinguish between financial reporting quality and quality of reported results (including quality of earnings, cash flow, and balance sheet items); b. describe a spectrum for assessing financial reporting quality; c. distinguish between conservative and aggressive accounting; d. describe motivations that might cause management to issue financial reports that are not high quality; e. describe conditions that are conducive to issuing low-quality, or even fraudulent, financial reports; f. describe mechanisms that discipline financial reporting quality and the potential limitations of those mechanisms; g. describe presentation choices, including non-GAAP measures, that could be used to influence an analyst’s opinion; h. describe accounting methods (choices and estimates) that could be used to manage earnings, cash flow, and balance sheet items; i. describe accounting warning signs and methods for detecting manipulation of information in financial reports.
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Introduction
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Difference between Financial Reporting Quality and Quality of Reported Results
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Spectrum for Assessing the Financial Reporting Quality
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Conservative and Aggressive Accounting
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Motivation Behind Low Quality Financial Reports
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Conditions Conducive to Low Quality Reporting
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Mechanisms That Discipline Financial Reporting Quality and Limitations to Mechanisms
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Presentation Choices That Could Influence Analyst’s Opinion
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Methods Used to Manage Earnings, Cash Flow & Balance Sheet Items
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Warning Signs Indicating Manipulation of Financial Reports
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APPLICATIONS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENT ANALYSIS
This part of the study session 9 is covered under Reading 30, as covered by the CFA Institute. After reading this chapter a candidate should be able to: a. evaluate a company’s past financial performance and explain how a company’s strategy is reflected in past financial performance; b. forecast a company’s future net income and cash flow; c. describe the role of financial statement analysis in assessing the credit quality of a potential debt investment; d. describe the use of financial statement analysis in screening for potential equity investments; e. explain appropriate analyst adjustments to a company’s financial statements to facilitate comparison with another company.
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Introduction
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Evaluation of Performance Vis-à-vis Strategy
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Forecasting Company’s Net Income Cash Flow
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Assessing the Credit Quality
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Screening for Potential Equity Investment
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Adjustment Necessary to Facilitate Comparisons
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Financial Reporting and Analysis
About Lesson

LOS E requires us to:

describe implications for financial analysis of alternative financial reporting systems and the importance of monitoring developments in financial reporting standards

 

1.    Comparison of IFRS with Alternative Reporting Systems

IFRS is more of an international set of standards, aimed at providing a unified set of standards for all the reporting entities and users of financial statements across the world, in order to make comparison easier. Most of the countries either follow either IFRS in absolute form / converged form or their own set of accepted financial reporting standards, which have certain differences with the IFRS. Arguably, the most critical is the differences that exist between IFRS and US GAAP.

There is basically the difference in the treatment and the disclosure requirements as per both the US GAAP and the IFRS. Since the US GAAP are more of rules-based standards, there are regulations for every small detailed aspect of financial reporting; leaving very little room for manipulation and use of judgment by the preparers of the financial statements. The US GAAP was predominantly meant for the application to the US companies and was more akin to the taxation and SEC filing rules in the States. 

However, the IFRS’s were predominantly formulated with an idea to have a uniform set of reporting standards that could be applied to the entities across the globe, making the financial statements more readable and easily understandable to the users of financial statements across the world. Thus the main principle, on which these standards were ought to be formed was adaptability across the countries, considering the varied tax structure and the legal framework. Thus, IFRS is more general in nature and leaves more scope for manipulation by the users.

For example, there are various aspects of reporting in which US GAAP differs from the IFRS. For instance, in reporting for fixed assets; as per the GAAP they must be carried at the historical cost and only a downward revaluation is possible. Also, exchange fluctuations on loans taken for the purchase of fixed assets can be expensed as incurred.  However, as per the IFRSs, downward revaluation of fixed assets is also permissible and capitalization of exchange difference arising on repayment of liabilities incurred for the purpose of acquiring fixed assets is not permitted.

Also in accounting for inventories, as per the IAS, the inventories should be valued at a lower cost or realizable value. However, as per the US GAAP, there are certainly exceptional cases where inventories may be stated above the cost. These include the case of precious metals having fixed monetary value with no substantial cost of marketing stated at such monetary value.

2.    Monitoring the Developments in Financial Reporting Standards

For an analyst, it is imperative to monitor the developments in the financial reporting standards to understand what impact they will have on the valuation of securities and other financial instruments.

Sources of Monitoring the Developments in Financial Reporting Standards CFA

An analyst can monitor these developments by monitoring the following three things:

a.  New Products or New Types of Transactions. These new products or transactions are those things that are new to the market and have not been accounted for before. Hence there are no standards available to account for the same. Thus these give a lot of scope to the management for manipulation. Information regarding such transactions can be gathered from the companies’ financial statements and business magazines or journals etc. Although there are no set of standards to account for the same; the analysts can look into the framework for the correct treatment of such transactions, to analyze their possible impact.

b.  From the actions of standard setters and other groups representing users of financial statements. The information can be gathered from the websites, publications, journals, press releases, etc. of the standard setters such as IASB, FASB, etc., or the groups representing the users of financial statements such as CFA Institute. These groups regularly publish updates with respect to the new issues that require consideration, the new updates to the existing standards, etc. This information can help the analysts in understanding the developments and their impact on the analysis of the transaction.

c.  The Company’s Disclosures. Companies preparing financial statements under any of the standards are required to make certain disclosures regarding the significant accounting policies used by them and any changes or deviations from the previous period’s policies and the impact of such deviations on the financial statements of the company. These disclosures can be found in the notes to the accounts and in the ‘management’s analysis and discussion’ section.

Analysts can also find the discussion about the impact of new standards on the statements, in these reports.

 

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